Why did Christianity go from a marginal sect to a dominant force in the Roman Empire?

For many years Rodney Stark was a Professor of Sociology at the University of Washington. He wrote an introductory college sociology text that has been through ten editions. 

A fascinating book he published in 1996 is The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries 

In the preface, Stark states his approach to trying to answer the question that is raised by the book title.

What I am primarily trying to contribute to studies of the early church is better social science—better theories and more formal methods of analysis, including quantification wherever possible and appropriate. Thus in this book I shall try to introduce historians and biblical scholars to real social science, including formal rational choice theory, theories of the firm, the role of social networks and interpersonal attachments in conversion, dynamic population models, social epidemiology, and models of religious economies.

Stark then considers how the role of women, caring for the sick in epidemics, social networks, martyrs, urban chaos, crises, and other factors all lead to the exponential growth of the church over three centuries.

                          Domenico di Bartolo, Care of The Sick

In the final chapter Stark states 

as I conclude this study, I find it necessary to confront what appears to me to be the ultimate factor in the rise of Christianity. Let me state my thesis: 

Central doctrines of Christianity prompted and sustained attractive, liberating, and effective social relations and organizations. 

I believe that it was the religion's particular doctrines that permitted Christianity to be among the most sweeping and successful revitalization movements in history. And it was the way these doctrines took on actual flesh, the way they directed organizational actions and individual behavior, that led to the rise of Christianity. 

Contrasting ways that Asians and Westerner's think about theology

 In the theology reading group over two months we discussed Asian Christian Theology: Evangelical Perspectives, published by Langham. It is an edited volume with 16 different authors and is divided into two equal parts, covering doctrinal themes and contemporary concerns. Asia is defined in geographic terms and the authors come from more than ten different countries, including Hong Kong, Israel, and Sri Lanka. Although their contexts are very diverse there are some common features, such as gross economic inequality, Christians being a religious minority, societies are largely religious, globalisation, and limited religious and political freedoms.

Previously, I have written some about the challenges of contextual theology.

According to the Ph.D. program in contextual theology at the Asian Theological Seminary in Manila.

Contextual theology does not mean elevating the local to the detriment of the global. It simply challenges other local theologies that have been elevated to classical status. Thus, contextual theology, while oriented towards a particular society or culture or cultural sub-group, is still in conversation with other theologies in a global discourse since it recognizes that the church is both local and universal. This implies that issues tackled in research will be rooted in the local context but will have global resonance or implications.

The first part of the book aims to give some Asian perspectives on the following doctrinal themes: revelation, scripture, the Trinity, Christology, creation, the Holy Spirit, ecclesiology, and eschatology. I felt that these chapters were a little disappointing as they seemed too "Western" to me. Perhaps this is because almost all the authors did Ph.D.'s in the West!

I felt the second part of the book was better and here focus on just a few chapters.

On page 248 there is a fascinating footnote about Asian modes of thinking. 

In his book, Mangoes or Bananas: The Quest for an Authentic Christian Theology, Hwa Yung suggests that Easterners have a relational approach in contrast to the rational approach of Westerners. Melba Maggay suggests that Asians focus on synthesis and seek to harmonise contradictions. In contrast, Westerners have a "mental habit of logical negation and either-or-thinking."

In all Asian countries, except the Philippines, Christianity is a minority religion. This means that daily life for Christians in Asia involves interactions with people from different religions. Ivan Satyovatra and Kang-San Tan each present chapters on this topic.

The discussion of any topic, not just in theology, is framed and even determined by what questions one asks and what framework is used to answer those questions. With regard to non-Christian religions, questions commonly posed are "Can a non-Christian be saved?" and "Is the Christian God present in non-Christian religions?" Furthermore, addressing this topic, one should be clear about how a particular "religion" is defined and evaluated. Is it in terms of beliefs, practices, texts, or culture? And who gets to define these things: local practitioners, Western academics, or religious authorities?

There is a common typology used to classify the perspective of Christian writers on other religions: exclusivist, inclusivist, or pluralist. Tan reviews three main criticisms of this typology (p. 280-1). First, it oversimplifies the diversity of religions and the diversity within them. Second, it restricts the diversity of possible Christian responses. "Third, the focus of the typology has been mostly on doctrinal comparison between religious systems rather than on people and relationships between faith practitioners. In particular, the typology does not allow a sufficient role for the process of encounter between people from different religions." In different words, it represents a false trichotomy. I find this last criticism fascinating because it reflects an Asian inclination to focus on relationships rather than rationality, as noted in the comments from Yung and Maggay that I mentioned above.

Tan then proposes an alternative typology that is built around Hans Frei's Five Types of Theology, as recounted by David Ford in Theology: A Very Short Introduction. Although I think this is an interesting discussion and it surpasses the three-fold typology, I did not find it more illuminating.

In chapter 11, "Jesus and Other Faiths," Ivan Satyavratra first gives a detailed critique of the pluralist position. He concludes that its most serious weakness is "the huge logical inconsistency inherent in its attempt to deny the right of other worldviews to make any privileged claims, even as pluralism itself employs tradition-specific criteria in evaluating religious beliefs." It "makes exclusive truth claims about the nature of reality just like any other religious belief system." (page 229).

He then presents an alternative proposal in his own context, a "fulfillment" approach. Jesus is the ultimate fulfilment of other religions, in some ways similar to how Jesus was the fulfilment of Judaism. Paul's addresses to Gentile audiences that are recorded in Acts 14 and 17 reflect a similar perspective as Paul argues Jesus is the fulfillment of the god found in the local religion. There is then a nice overview of Indians with Hindu backgrounds who have embraced this approach over the last two hundred years. A similar approach has been advocated by John Mbiti with respect to African traditional religions.

The battle for succession: from King David's sons to 21st-century American evangelicalism

 At church we have just started a sermon and study series on the book of 1 Kings in the Old Testament. To get the big picture of a book of the Bible I find it helpful to watch (several times) a short video produced by The Bible Project and to print out the associated poster.

1 Kings begins with intrigue and scheming as there is a battle between two of David's sons, Adonijah and Solomon, and their associated entourages, to receive the blessing of their ailing father to be King. The Bible gives a "warts and all" description of these flawed humans who often act in morally dubious ways, while claiming they are doing what YHWH wants. The ends justify the means. Naked selfish ambition will go to extreme ends to gain and maintain power. It is all about money, sex, and power. This is not just ancient Israel, but also the world we live in today. 

The endless scheming and drama resonate with the popular TV series, Succession, which I have not watched. But, it is not just in the modern pagan world of global corporations that one sees such dramas. I thought of a recent article in Vanity Fair. The article features two sons who succeeded their fathers to lead large Christian organisations in the USA, and now draw annual salaries of about $1 M per year.

INSIDE JERRY FALWELL JR.’S UNLIKELY RISE AND PRECIPITOUS FALL AT LIBERTY UNIVERSITY

Jerry Falwell Jr. was the Trump-anointing dark prince of the Christian right. Then a sex scandal rocked his marriage and ended his lucrative stewardship of the evangelical education empire founded by his father. In a series of exclusive interviews, Falwell—accompanied by his wife, Becki—describes the events that led to his ouster, their fallout, and why he’s finally ready to admit he never had much use for his father’s church anyway.

The article contains the following anecdote.

Jerry also suspected that Franklin Graham, son of the late Billy Graham, used the scandal to expand the Graham family’s influence over Liberty. Franklin Graham’s son Will was named vice chairman of Liberty’s board... Jerry said Franklin Graham had also once told him that he wanted to start a Billy Graham University, but it didn’t get off the ground. In September 2020, Jerry and Franklin got into an argument over who should get credit for Liberty’s success. “I said, ‘My dad built the foundation, but I built the house. And Franklin got furious. He said, ‘You didn’t build it!’ You should have heard the jealousy in Franklin’s voice,” Jerry recalled. According to Jerry, Franklin Graham told him his future in the Christian world is over. “He said, ‘You’ll never be anything in evangelical circles again.’ ” Graham, through a spokesperson, declined to comment.

Money, sex, and power. Just like in 1 Kings. Jesus, God's anointed eternal King is so different. So should his servants be.

Reflections on Prayer

Guest post by Robin McKenzie

It seems to me that a lot of our prayers are Santa Claus prayers: giving God a list of things that we want him to do. Quite a few of these are things that God has already done such as forgiving us. Instead of begging God to do things he’s already promised to do seems we should thank him for what is already done and affirm him for what he is going to do. What do you think? Consider the subtle difference in wording I put in the Lord’s Prayer below. I find it helpful because it reflects a major difference in my attitude when I pray it this way.

A variation on Lord’s Prayer Matthew  6:9-15

God, I declare you are my father in heaven

I will seek to honour your name

Your kingdom is coming 

so help me to do your will on earth as it is in heaven

Thank you that you have given me what I need for the day 

Thank you that you have forgiven me for the ways I have dishonoured you

And help me to forgive those who wronged me

Thank you for protecting me from going astray

And from the evil one

For yours is the kingdom the power and the glory forever and ever 

Amen

An appreciation of Charles Ringma on his 80th Birthday

 Last Friday evening about forty friends of  Charles Ringma gathered in Brisbane to celebrate his 80th Birthday. There was a lot of creativity and laughter in the personal tributes that were presented. Here is my tribute.

Integrity and hospitality are two words that describe what I appreciate and respect about Charles. Integrity and hospitality, in the broadest and deepest sense of both words.

Charles embodies integrity. Charles’ head, heart, and hands act in harmony and synergy. There is consistency between what Charles believes, what he says, what he writes, how he acts, and what he loves. This may be why Charles has been such an influential teacher and leader. 

Charles embodies hospitality. Charles and Rita have opened their home to diverse people over decades. But this is just one dimension of his hospitality. Charles also models intellectual and relational hospitality, including to people with different theological backgrounds and perspectives. Charles has been hospitable to me, inviting me into spaces, conversations, and initiatives.

When I read church history, over two thousand years I am struck by two things. First, how people who claim to be following Jesus do an amazing job of stuffing things up at every level: how they act, what they believe, and what they love. At such times it is hard to see how the church is the body of Christ, embodying his presence in the world. The sin of humanity abounds in breadth and creativity. Second, despite these abysmal failures, in every age and context, our merciful God raises up individuals, communities, and institutions that restore some sanity, integrity, and spirituality to the church. The church then becomes an instrument of blessing and a positive change agent for society.

Charles is a beautiful example of an individual who for his adult life, God has used in diverse contexts to be a shining light in communities and institutions to help guide them back to Jesus and the Kingdom of God. This influence may be because Charles draws from the best thought and practices from two thousand years of church history and from the global church.'

I have only known Charles since 2014. When I reflect on my own Christian pilgrimage, I am struck by two things. First, how I often mess things up, just like the church. Second, God is merciful and at crucial moments God brings me into contact with individuals, communities, and institutions that, just like the church, I need to get back on track and progress. Charles has been such a gift from God to me. Around 2010 I came across Resist the Powers, Charles devotional book, based on Jacques Ellul, and it resonated deeply with me. Hence, I was very happy when in 2013, Paul Mercer told me about a theology reading group led by Charles in his home each month. That then led to being involved in Theology on Tap, and being part of the “holy” scribblers, an eclectic writing collective.

Charles, best wishes. Thank you for your friendship, your partnership, your wisdom, and your example. I hope the LORD grants you many more birthdays.

How should churches care for the homeless?

My wife Robin and I are involved with Village Mosaix a ministry of our church that cares for the marginalised in our community, including the homeless. Given our lack of experience and expertise, we are eager to learn from others who have worked long and hard in this challenging field. Here is a review by Robin of a book that we both find helpful, encouraging, and challenging.

Not Just a One-Night Stand: Ministry with the Homeless by John Flowers and Karen Vannoy

The authors ask a lot from those of us who want to care for the marginalised in our cities, nothing less than mutual transformation. It is true that the homeless aren’t the only ones that need to be transformed. We all fall short of what God has planned for us. The poor have as much to teach us as we have to give them. Church attendees have their own addictions they struggle with. It may not be the same as people on the streets but include things such as food, control, ego, anxiety, attention, work, and the good life filled with many toys. 

The authors challenge us “to learn why our “help” often doesn’t help.” We need to stop thinking of ministering to the homeless and instead see it as ministry with the homeless. Reflecting this from the very beginning with a participatory style of service. We don’t get bonus points for having our hearts and wallets in the right place if our actions are in the wrong direction.  Dignity and respect are vital. Here are a few problematic attitudes: we feel sorry for you, we have a great deal, you have so little, we are not as broken as you are, and we have come to help you.

The authors challenge us to care for others, not for any thanks that we might receive, but because Jesus has told us to love our neighbours. A real zinger for many churches is that the authors explicitly say a hot meal is not enough. 

There are many good stories and some not so good. They encourage readers to want to go deeper in our mutual transformation together with the poor. 

The four-page epilogue gives some helpful suggestions on where to start. The one challenging me the most was having a close enough relationship with people in our area so they will tell us what they need rather than us assuming we know. This book is written from an American perspective where there are some different resources and attitudes to Australia, such as fewer government services and vastly larger numbers of homeless. However, the ideas and lessons are transferable to the Australian context.

The intellectually illegitimate children of Isaac Newton

The incredible scientific success of Isaac Newton led to intellectual revolutions in science, philosophy, economics, and theology. But many of the ideas developed and promoted have a dubious intellectual parentage. 

The key issues to consider centre around whether Newton's approach, success and interpretations in physics translate to other topics of interest.

Newton studied a specific topic: the mechanical motion of bodies, including cannonballs and planets. He used a method appropriate to that topic. High levels of precision, both in measurement and in making theoretical predictions were possible. This led to high levels of certainty about what was true and what was not.

A few intellectual bastards fertilised, fed, and sustained by the success of Newtonian mechanics include the following.

 The mechanical philosophy

The clockwork universe. 

People are machines.

 Strasbourg Astronomical Clock

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was the first philosopher of modern science and a founder of sociology (social physics). He was the founder of positivism, claiming that societies progress through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive. These correspond to eras of primitive (Christendom), Enlightenment, and modern science. Comte promoted a hierarchy of sciences with physics as the most fundamental. Comte's legacy has been roundly criticised by Pierre de Gennes, a Nobel Laureate in Physics.

Foundationalism seeks to establish truth logically by starting from a few axioms that can be taken as self-evident or "justified". There are parallels to Newtonian physics in that it starts with just Newton's laws and can deduce all the details of mechanical motion from these laws.

Theology was diverted in unfruitful directions and impoverished by these intellectual movements that claimed credence because of the success of Newton. There was a desire to mimic methods and levels of certainty of Newtonian physics. Here I identify several problematic movements in theology.

Deism. This was a natural outgrowth of the clockwork universe.

Foundationalism. Theology is largely concerned with propositional truth rather than with godly living. The object-subject distinction was considered possible and desirable.

Liberal theology. Since one could not match the confident certainty of Newtonian science one was left with doubt about everything: the reliability of the Bible, miracles, the existence of a heavenly realm, and the divinity of Jesus. The solution was the methods of historical-biblical criticism (form, source, redaction, literary, .. criticism), demythologisation, ...

Fundamentalism.  This reaction to liberal theology led in the opposite direction. A desire for certainty produced notions such as the infallibility of scripture, the inerrancy of scripture, and strict true-false dichotomies with little room for paradox, dialectic, imagination, or polyphonic readings of texts.

Modernist forms of apologetics.  In the second half of the twentieth century in the U.S.A. , there was the development and promotion of evidential apologetics and presuppositional apologetics. They attempted to show the intellectual validity of orthodox faith to the point that anyone who did not believe or accept the arguments presented was portrayed as irrational. Presuppositional apologetics aims to show a non-Christian that their worldview is intellectually incoherent and then in their despair preach the gospel to them.

In conclusion, I do not think any of these movements was particularly helpful. They impoverished theology rather than enriching it. Their intellectual foundations were shaky. They created as many problems as solutions. They lacked nuance and in hindsight are now seen by many as problematic. Humans and the Triune God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) are not cannonballs or planets orbiting the sun like clockwork. The methods and certainty of Newton cannot be uncritically transposed onto other areas of knowledge.