A common view today is that science provides the best, or even the only, means to discover the truth about anything, whether in physics, politics, or theology. Furthermore, science supersedes "faith" and provides a basis for certainty. What are the historical origins of such views.
A pivotal time in the intellectual history of the Western world was the 17th and 18th centuries when stunning advances were made in understanding the physics underlying the motion of bodies, from cannonballs to planets. This success was encapsulated in Isaac Newton (1643-1727) formulating calculus, his three Laws of Motion, and his theory of gravity. This made it possible to understand and quantitatively describe the motion of bodies, whether on earth or in the heavens.
These stunning successes led to significant new developments in science, philosophy, economics, and theology. They drove and provided legitimacy to the thinking and claims often associated with the era identified as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.
My main purpose here is to highlight how several intellectual moves (claims and arguments) were made that were debatable, including by theologians. These moves impoverished theology and science, both then and now, particularly in relation to the nature of certainty and choices of methodology.
To understand why these scientific advances were so disruptive it is helpful to review what the stunning achievements of Newton and his scientific children were. Until Galileo stirred the pot, the views of Aristotle dominated science, philosophy, and theology, especially in the Roman Catholic Church. Key elements of Aristotelianism that were demolished include the following.
- Reason not experiment takes priority.
- To understand the natural world, one makes common sense observations, not precise measurements.
- A ball falls faster than a feather.
- The earth is not in motion.
- On earth moving bodies slow down and stop if left to themselves.
- Motion on earth and in the heavens are different.
(Aside: My appreciation of these points is due to Peter Harrison.)
This distinction between heaven and earth may have fuelled some readings of scripture that emphasised sharp distinctions between heaven and the earth, the spiritual and the material.
Elements of Newton's mechanics that had a significant intellectual impact, included the following.
a. Just two mathematical equations can describe a diverse range of mechanical phenomena.
b. Solving these equations produced results that could be compared to detailed and precise observations (experimental data) of the motion of planets and cannonballs. Furthermore, the equations could be used to make predictions, such as the existence of new planets. This is how Neptune was discovered.
c. The same laws described the motion of bodies in the heavens and on earth.
d. The motion of bodies could be understood simply in terms of cause and effect.
e. An axiomatic approach was possible where mechanics can be understood as following from a few simple assumptions, such as the stationary action principle.
For the purposes of this discussion, the most important implication of all this was that certainty was possible. Theories were testable and we could clearly know what was true. Ptolemy's model of the solar system was wrong. Copernicus and Newton were correct. There was no need to invoke deities to understand the motion of heavenly bodies. The latter was embodied in a famous, albeit apocryphal, dialogue between Napoleon and Laplace.
Aside: An example of the level of precision possible is the precession of the orbit of the planet Mercury. The observed magnitude of this effect disagrees with Newton's predictions by an angle of less than one ten-thousandth of a degree per orbit. This discrepancy was later solved by Einstein's Theory of General Relativity
In life success often leads to hubris, whether in business, politics, science, or Christian ministry. For example, today there is a mythology that athletic success can translate into success in business and politics. The success of Newton's mechanics led to a hubris that became embodied in the Enlightenment. In particular, several intellectual moves were made that are contestable. The most important move was a confidence that similar approaches to that used for mechanical motion were appropriate to obtain knowledge about other objects of study. Furthermore, it was assumed that similar levels of success and certainty were possible and would occur in due time.
A different perspective begins with the observation that each field of science, from physics to biology to sociology, is concerned with a distinct object. The nature of this object then determines the methods to use, what it is possible to know, and what levels of certainty were possible concerning any knowledge gained.
In the next post, I will introduce some of Newton's intellectual bastards, influential ideas and methods that are claimed to be scientific, but are actually debatable. Some marginalise Christian faith, which is considered old-fashioned, unscientific, or intellectually inferior. Some of these ideas impoverish theology.
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